Mitigating Toxic Leaders Through the Experiences of Employees: A Qualitative Narrative Inquiry
Keywords:
leadership, accountability, ethics, toxic leadership, narrative inquiry, leadership mitigation strategies, organizational leadership, employee well-beingAbstract
The purpose of this qualitative narrative inquiry explored the toxic leadership through the experiences and perceptions of employees to identify strategies and best practices for mitigation increase productivity, enhance job satisfaction, increase morale and retention in an organization in the Northeast region of the United States. Using purposive and snowball sampling, 15 employees participated in semi-structured interviews. Data analysis revealed five themes and two subthemes, highlighting toxic behaviors, lack of empathy, bullying, discrimination, poor communication, and impact on mental health. The study addresses a research gap by examining toxic leadership effects between employees and organizations, emphasizing the importance of addressing toxic leadership to foster a healthier work environment and enhance morale and job satisfaction.
References
Akca, M. (2017). The impact of toxic leadership on intention to leave of employees. International Journal of Economic Business Management Research, 1(4), 285–298
Albercht, S.L., Bakker, A.B., Gruman, J.A., Macey, W.H., & Saks, A.M. (2015). Employee engagement, human resource management practices and competitive advantage: An integrated approach. Journal of Organizational Effectiveness: People and Performance, 2, 7– 35. doi:10.1108/joepp-08-2014-0042
Alexander, A., De Smet, A., Langstaff, M., & Ravid, D. (2021). What Employees are Saying About the Future of Remote Work (pp. 1–1). McKinsey & Company.
Allen, M. (2017). The SAGE Encyclopedia of Communication Research Methods. In SAGE Publications, Inc. eBooks (Vol. 1–4). https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483381411
Allen, M. (2019). The Real Costs of Bad Management-And What You Can Do About It. Graziadio Business Review, 22(1). Retrieved from https://gbr.pepperdine.edu/2019/03/the-real-costs-of-bad-management-and-what-you-can-do-about-it/
Alloubani, A., Akhu-Zaheya, L., Abdelhafiz, I.M., & Almatari, M. (2019). Leadership Styles’ Influence on the Quality of Nursing Care. International Journal of Health Care Quality Assurance, 32(6), 1022–1033. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJHCQA-06-2018-0138
Anjum, A., Ming, X., Siddiqi, A.F., & Rasool, S.F. (2018). An empirical study analyzing job productivity in toxic workplace environments. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(5), 1035. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15051035
Appelbaum, S.H., & Roy‐Girard, D. (2007). Toxins in the workplace: Effect on organizations and employees. Corporate Governance, 7(1), 17–28. https://doi.org/10.1108/14720700710727087
Arenas, F.J., Connelly, D., & Williams, M.D. (2017). Developing your Full Range of Leadership: Leveraging a Transformational Approach, pp. 11–36. Air University Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep13849.15
Asrar-ul-Haq, M., & Anwar, S. (2018). The Many Faces of Leadership: Proposing Research Agenda Through Review of Literature. Future Business Journal, 4(2), 179–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbj.2018.06.002
Avolio, B.J. (2011). Full Range Leadership Development (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc. Retrieved from https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=HZDOAwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&ots=V50Pdn05jD&sig=hk23jbAmogi01XJG4G9CcotlzeE#v=onepage&q&f=false
Aziri, B. (2011). Job Satisfaction: A Literature Review. Management Research and Practice, 3(4), 77–86. Retrieved from https://mrp.ase.ro/no34/f7.pdf
Bakkal, E., Serener, B., & Myrvang, N.A. (2019). Toxic leadership and turnover intention: Mediating role of job satisfaction. Revista de Cercetare si Interventie Sociala, 66, 88–102. https://doi.org/10.33788/rcis.66.6
Bakker, A.B., & van Woerkom, M. (2018). Strengths use in Organizations: A positive Approach of Occupational Health. Canadian Psychology / Psychologie Canadienne, 59(1), 38–46. https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000120
Bakker, A.B., Hetland, J., Olsen, O.K., & Espevik, R. (2022). Daily transformational leadership: A source of inspiration for follower performance? European Management Journal, 41(5), 700–708. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2022.04.004
Baloyi, G.T. (2020). Toxicity of Leadership and its Impact on Employees: Exploring the Dynamics of Leadership in an Academic Setting. Hervormde Teologiese Studies, 76(2), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v76i2.5949
Bauer, G.R., Churchill, S.M., Mahendran, M., Walwyn, C., Lizotte, D., & Villa-Rueda, A.A. (2021). Intersectionality in quantitative research: A systematic review of its emergence and applications of theory and methods. SSM - Population Health, 14, 100798. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2021.100798
Behery, M., Al-Nasser, A.D., Jabeen, F., Rawas, E., Said, A. (2018). Toxic leadership and organizational citizenship behavior: A mediation effect of followers’ trust and commitment in the Middle East. International Journal of Business & Society, 19(3), 793–815.
Bhasin, H. (2018). Employee satisfaction and morale among the skilled workforce of steel manufacturing plant. Journal of Organisation & Human Behaviour, 7(4), 31–42.
Billups, F. (2021). Interview Protocols. SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071878699
Billups, F. (2021). Qualitative Data Collection Tools: Design, Development, and Applications. SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071878699
Bizmanualz. (2022). What is Control Leadership? Retrieved from https://www.bizmanualz.com/improve-management-systems/what-is-control leadership.:text=Control%20leadership%20is%20all%20about,to%20consistent%20standards%20and%20protocols.
Boddy, C.R. (2014). Corporate psychopaths, conflict, employee affective well-being and counterproductive work behaviour. Journal of Business Ethics, 121(1), 107–121. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-013-1688-0
Boddy, C.R. (2015). Organizational psychopaths: A ten year update. Management Decision, 53(10), 2407–2432.
Boland, R.J., & Tenkasi, R.V. (1995). Perspective making and perspective taking in communities of knowing. Organization Science, 6(4), 350–372. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.6.4.350
Box, J.E. (2012). Toxic Leadership in the Military Profession. Carlisle Barracks, PA: United States Army War College. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1152225.pdf#:~:text=The%20paper%20focused%20on%20three%20distinctly%20harmful%20leadership,styles%20were%20identified%20from%20the%20literature%20and%20detailed
Braun, V., Clarke, V., Hayfield, N., & Terry, G. (2019). Thematic analysis. In P. Liamputtong (Ed.), Handbook of Research Methods in Health Social Sciences. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5251-4_103
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2019) Reflecting on Reflexive Thematic Analysis, Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 11(4), 589–597. DOI: 10.1080/2159676X.2019.1628806
Bringhurst, J., & Palombi, E. (2023). Toxic Senior Military Leaders in the Cockpit. Air & Space Operations Review, 2(2), 82–90.
Britt, T.W., Adler, A.B., Bliese, P.D., & Moore, D. (2013). Morale as a Moderator of the Combat Exposure-PTSD Symptom Relationship. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26(1), 94–101. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21775
Burns, W.A. (2017). A descriptive literature review of harmful leadership styles: Definitions, commonalities, measurements, negative impacts, and ways to improve these harmful leadership styles. Creighton Journal of Interdisciplinary Leadership, 3(1), 33–52. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1152225
Candela, A.G. (2019). Exploring the Function of Member Checking. The Qualitative Report, 24(3), 619–628. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2019.3726
Chu, L. (2014). Mediating Toxic Emotions in the Workplace — The Impact of Abusive Supervision. Journal of Nursing Management, 22(8), 953–963. https://doi.org/10.1111/jonm.12071
Clandinin, D.J., & Connelly, F.M. (2000). Narrative Inquiry: Experience and Story in Qualitative Research. Jossey-Bass.
Cocker, F., Martin, A., Scott, J., Venn, A., & Sanderson, K. (2013). Psychological distress, related work attendance, and productivity loss in small-to-medium enterprise owner/managers. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 10(10), 5062–5082. MDPI AG. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph10105062
Covella, G., McCarthy, V., Kaifi, B., & Cocoran, D. (2017). Leadership’s role in employee retention. Business Management Dynamics, 7(5), 1–15.
Creswell, J.W. (2013). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc.
Ćulibrk, J., Delić, M., Mitrović, S., & Ćulibrk, D. (2018). Job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job involvement: The mediating role of job involvement. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 132. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00132
Czarniawska, B. (2007). Narrative Inquiry in and About Organizations. SAGE Publications, Inc. https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781452226552
Das, B.L., & Baruah, M. (2013). Employee Retention: A Review of Literature. IOSR Journal of Business and Management, 14(8). Retrieved from https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Employee-Retention%3A-A-Review-of-Literature-Das-Baruah/0fe1bdfebc4272a68a87cb80edfa08103090297e
Dobbs, J.M., & Do, J.J. (2019). The Impact of Perceived Toxic Leadership on Cynicism in Officer Candidates. Armed Forces & Society, 45(1), 3–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095327X17747204
Durdella, N. (2019). Developing Data Collection Instruments and Describing Data Collection Procedures. SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781506345147
Edmondson, A.C., Zuzul, T. (2016). Quantitative and qualitative methods in organizational research. In M. Augier, & D. Teece (Eds.), The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Strategic Management. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-94848-2_562-1
Erickson, A., Shaw, B., Murray, J., & Branch, S. (2015). Destructive leadership: Causes, consequences, and countermeasures. Organizational Dynamics, 44(4), 266–272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orgdyn.2015.09.003
Fahie, D. (2020). The lived experience of toxic leadership in Irish Higher Education. International Journal of Workplace Health Management, 13(3), 341–355. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJWHM-07-2019-0096
Flick, U. (2018). Ethics in Qualitative Research (Vols. 1–0). SAGE Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781529622737
Flick, U. (2018). Triangulation in Data Collection. SAGE Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781526416070
Gandolfi, F., & Stone, S. (2022). Toxic Leadership: Behaviors, Characteristics, and Consequences. Journal of Management Research (09725814), 22(1), 19–27
Goldstein, H.W., Pulakos, E.D., Semedo, C., & Passmore, J. (2020). The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of the Psychology of Recruitment, Selection and Employee Retention. John Wiley & Sons.
Gossett, L. (2012). Organizational Control Theory: Encyclopedia of Communication Theory. SAGE. Retrieved from https://edge.sagepub.com/system/files/77593_9.2ref.pdf
Harper, E., Castrucci, B.C., Bharthapudi, K., & Sellers, K. (2015). Job satisfaction: A critical, understudied facet of workforce development in public health. Journal of Public Health Management and Practice: JPHMP, 21(Suppl 6), S46–S55. https://doi.org/10.1097/PHH.0000000000000296
Hattab, S., Wirawan, H., Salam, R., Daswati, D., & Niswaty, R. (2022). The Effect of Toxic Leadership on Turnover Intention and Counterproductive Work Behavior in Indonesia Public Organizations. International Journal of Public Sector Management, 35(3), 317–333. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPSM-06-2021-0142
Herbst, T.H.H., & Mukhola, M.S. (2018, July 3–7). Female Leaders’ Experience of Toxic Leadership in Higher Education Institutions in South Africa. In Delener & C. Scheikert (Eds.), Global Business and Technology Association: 20th International Conference, GBATA Proceedings (pp. 183–193). Bangkok, Thailand.
Hinen, A.L. (2020). Toxic Leadership in the Military. Muma Business Review. Retrieved from https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Toxic-Leadership-in-the-Military-Hinen/52d5bff478be56bd3e496ca985007bf86eca5654
Hudgins, T., Brown, K.D., Layne, D., & Maggard Stephens, T. (2022). The Effect of Academic Nurse Leaders’ Toxic Behaviors. Journal of Nursing Education, 61(2), 88+. Retrieved from https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A692200077/HRCA?u=uphoenix&sid=bookmark-HRCA&xid=4700e519
Hughes, B.C. (2022). Examining toxic leadership: An integrated framework for organizational recovery. Journal of Behavioral & Applied Management, 22(3), 309–344. https://doi.org/10.21818/001c.55772
Jung-Gehling, C., & Strauss, E. (2018). A contemporary of organizational control: Its dependence on shared values and impact on motivation. Schmalenbach Business Review, 70, 341374. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41464-018-0053-3
Kellerman, B. (2004). Bad Leadership: What it is, How it Happens, Why it Matters. Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing.
Kim, J. (2016). Understanding Narrative Inquiry. SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071802861
Kim, J. (2016). Narrative Data Analysis and Interpretation. SAGE Publications, Inc. https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781071802861
Kim, J. (2016). Narrative Data Collection Methods. SAGE Publications, Inc. https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781071802861
Kim, J. (2016). Narrative Research Genres. SAGE Publications, Inc. https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781071802861
Labrague, L.J., Lorica, J., Nwafor, C.E., & Cummings, G.G. (2021). Predictors of toxic leadership behaviour among nurse managers: A cross-sectional study. Journal of Nursing Management, 29(2), 165–176. https://doi.org/10.1111/jonm.13130
Laguda, E. (2020). Toxic Leadership: Managing Its Poisonous Effects on Employees and Organizational Outcomes. In S. Dhiman (Ed.), The Palgrave Handbook of Workplace Well-Being. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02470-3_71-1
Leonova, I.M., Yevchenko, I.M., Masliuk, A.M., Brahina, K.I., & Salata, H.V. (2021). Emotional Intelligence as a Factor against Burnout in Female Students and Teachers. Journal of Intellectual Disability Diagnosis and Treatment, 9(3), 280–2.
Lipman-Blumen, J. (2006). The Allure of Toxic Leaders: Why We Follow Destructive Bosses and Corrupt Politicians--and How We Can Survive Them. Oxford University Press, USA.
Lipman-Blumen, J. (2010). Toxic Leadership: A Conceptual Framework. In F. Bournois, J. Duval-Hamel, S. Roussillon, & J.L. Scaringella (Eds.), Handbook of Top Management Teams. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230305335_23
Lubit, R. (2004). Coping with Toxic Managers, Subordinates, and Other Difficult People. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Mallik, A., Mallik, L., & Keerthi, D.S. (2019). Impact of employee morale on organizational success. International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering, 8(4), 3289–3293.
Marinova, D., Ye, J., & Singh, J. (2008). Do frontline mechanisms matter? Impact of quality and productivity orientations on unit revenue, efficiency, and customer satisfaction. Journal of Marketing, 72(2), 28–45. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkg.72.2.28
Mathieu, C., & Babiak, P. (2015). Tell me who you are, I’ll tell you how you lead: Beyond the full-range leadership model, the role of corporate psychopathy on employee attitudes. Personality and Individual Differences, 87, 8–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.016
Mathieu, C., Neumann, C., Babiak, P., & Hare, R.D. (2015). Corporate psychopathy and the full-range leadership model. Assessment, 22(3), 267–278. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191114545490
Mehta, S., & Maheshwari, G.C. (2013). Consequence of toxic leadership on employee job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Journal of Contemporary Management Research, 8(2), 1–23.
Mehta, S., & Maheshwari, G.C. (2014). Toxic leadership: Tracing the destructive trail. Journal Impact Factor, 5(10), 18–24.
Mergen, A., & Ozbilgin, M.F. (2021). Understanding the followers of toxic leaders: Toxic illusion and personal uncertainty. International Journal of Management Reviews, 23(1), 45–63. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijmr.12240
Miller, D.C., & Salkind, N.J. (2002). Handbook of Research Design & Social Measurement. SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412984386
Milosevic, I., Maric, S., & Lončar, D. (2020). Defeating the Toxic Boss: The Nature of Toxic Leadership and the Role of Followers. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 27(2), 117–137. https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051819833374
Mistry, H., Levack, W.M.M., & Johnson, S. (2015). Enabling People, Not Completing Tasks: Patient Perspectives on Relationships and Staff Morale in Mental Health Wards in England. BMC Psychiatry, 15, 307. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-015-0690-8
Mohammad, G.S., & Siddiqi, N. (2023). Examining Toxic Supervision in Higher Education in India. Higher Education Evaluation and Development, 17(1), 2–22. https://doi.org/10.1108/HEED-06-2021-0047
Montuori, P., Sorrentino, M., Sarnacchiaro, P., Di Duca, F., Nardo, A., Ferrante, B., … Nardone, A. (2022). Job Satisfaction: Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices Analysis in a Well-Educated Population. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(21), 14214. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192114214
Morris, J.A., Jr. (2019). Understanding Coping Strategies and Behaviors of Employees Affected by Toxic Leadership. Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies, 6359. Retrieved from https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations/6359
Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological Research Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Nayak, S., Jena, D., & Patnaik, S. (2021). Mediation framework connecting knowledge contract, psychological contract, employee retention, and employee satisfaction: An empirical study. International Journal of Engineering Business Management, 13. doi:10.1177/18479790211004007
Obeng, A.F., Quansah, P.E., & Boakye, E. (2020). The relationship between job insecurity and turnover intention: The mediating role of employee morale and psychological strain. Management, 10(2), 35–45.
Obeng, A.F., Zhu, Y., Quansah, P.E., Ntarmah, A.H., & Cobbinah, E. (2021). High-performance work practices and turnover intention: Investigating the mediating role of employee morale and the moderating role of psychological capital. SAGE Open, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244020988557
Ofei, A.M.A., Paarima, Y., Barnes, T., & Poku, C.A. (2022). Toxic leadership behaviour of nurse managers on perceived job satisfaction and productivity of nursing workforce in sub-Saharan Ghana: A multi-centre cross-sectional study. Journal of Nursing Management, 30(7), 2733–2742. https://doi.org/10.1111/jonm.13741
Ogidan, A.O., & Lao, T.M. (2015). A case study on leadership development programs and the impact on employee retention. Leadership & Organizational Management Journal, (2), 45–66.
Oprea, B., Miulescu, A., & Iliescu, D. (2022). Followers’ Job crafting: Relationships with full-range leadership model. Current Psychology, 41(7), 4219. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-00950-7
Padilla, A., Hogan, R., & Kaiser, R.B. (2007). The Toxic Triangle: Destructive leaders, susceptible followers, and conducive environments. The Leadership Quarterly, 18(3), 176–194. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1048984307000367
Paltu, A., & Brouwers, M. (2020). Toxic Leadership: Effects on Job Satisfaction, Commitment, Turnover Intention and Organizational Culture Within the South African Manufacturing Industry. South African Journal of Human Resource Management, 18(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajhrm.v18i0.1338
Pelletier, K.L. (2010). Leader toxicity: An Empirical Investigation of Toxic Behavior and Rhetoric. Leadership, 6(4), 373–389. https://doi.org/10.1177/1742715010379308
Pianese, T., Errichiello, L. & da Cunha, J.V. (2023) Organizational control in the context of remote working: A synthesis of empirical findings and a research agenda. European Management Review, 20(2), 326–345. https://doi.org/10.1111/emre.12515
Pickering, C.E.Z., Nurenberg, K., & Schiamberg, L. (2017). Recognizing and responding to the “toxic” work environment: Worker safety, patient safety, and abuse/neglect in nursing homes. Qualitative Health Research, 27(12), 1870–1881. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732317723889
Ploder, A., & Hamann, J. (2021). Practices of ethnographic research: Introduction to the special issue. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 50(1), 3–10. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891241620979100
Priya, A. (2021). Case study methodology of qualitative research: Key attributes and navigating the conundrums in its application. Sociological Bulletin, 70(1), 94–110. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038022920970318
Prosek, E.A., & Gibson, D.M. (2021). Promoting rigorous research by examining lived Experiences: A review of four qualitative traditions. Journal of Counseling & Development, 99(2), 167–177. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcad.12364
Rasool, G., Naseer, S., Syed, F., & Ahmed, I. (2018). Despotic Leadership and Employee’s Outcomes: Mediating Effect of Impression Management. Retrieved from https://jespk.net/publications/4315.pdf
Rau, A., & Coetzee, J. (2022). Designing For Narratives and Stories (Vols. 1–2). SAGE Publications Ltd. https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781529770278
Raziq, A., & Maula-Bakhsh, R. (2015). Impact of working environment on job satisfaction. Procedia. Economics and Finance, 23, 717–725.
Reed, G. (2004). Toxic leadership. Military Review, 84(4), 67–71. Retrieved from https://www.armyupress.army.mil
Reyhanoglu, M., & Akin, O. (2022). Impact of toxic leadership on the intention to leave: Research on permanent and contracted hospital employees. Journal of Economic and Administrative Sciences, 38(1), 156–177.
Roberts, J.M., & Sanders, T. (2005). Before, during and after: Realism, reflexivity and ethnography. The Sociological Review, 53(2), 294–313. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-954X.2005.00515.x
Robertson, M.B. (2021). Hindsight is 2020: Identifying missed leadership opportunities to reduce employee turnover intention amid the COVID-19 shutdown. Strategic HR Review, 20(6), 215–220. https://doi.org/10.1108/SHR-09-2021-0045
Rombaut, E., & Guerry, M.A. (2020). the effectiveness of employee retention through an uplift modeling approach. International Journal of Manpower, 41(8), 1199–1220.
Sanford, R.N., & Conrad, H.S. (1944). High and low morale as exemplified in two cases. Character & Personality, 12(3), 207–227. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1944.tb01958.x
Saqib, A., & Arif, M. (2017). Employee silence as mediator in the relationship between toxic leadership behavior and organizational learning. Abasyn Journal of Social Sciences, 10(2), 294–310. Retrieved from http://ajss.abasyn.edu.pk/admineditor/papers/V10I2-5.pdf
Satiani, B., & Satiani, A. (2022). Recognizing and Managing a Toxic Leader: A Case Study. Physician Leadership Journal, 9(5), 23–27. https://doi.org/10.55834/plj.6849841215
Schmidt, A.A. (2014). An Examination of Toxic Leadership, Job Outcomes, and the Impact of Military Deployment. Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/examination-toxic-leadership-job-outcomes-impact/docview/1558874321/se-2
Schreier, M. (2018). Sampling and Generalization. SAGE Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781526416070
Serrat, O. (2021). The Full Range Leadership Model: Essentials and Practicum. In Leading Solutions. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-6485-1_15
SHRM. (2019). The High Cost of a Toxic Workplace Culture: How Culture Impacts the Workforce-and the Bottom Line. Omnibus, Bureau of Labor Statistics, and the Center for American Progress. Retrieved from http://file:///C:/Users/glovez01/OneDrive%20-%20CPGPLC/Desktop/Dis%20work/shrm_pmq_research_-the_hight.pdf
Singh, D. (2019). A literature review on employee retention with focus on recent trends. International Journal of Scientific Research in Science and Technology, 6(1), 425–431.
Singh, N., Sengupta, S., & Dev, S. (2018). Toxic Leadership: The Most Menacing Form of Leadership. IntechOpen. http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.75462
Sivarat, N., Thamma, P., & Kenaphoom, S. (2021). Full Range Leadership Concepts. Ilkogretim Online, 20(3), 131–1319. https://doi.org/10.17051/ilkonline.2021.03.147
Sutton, R.I. (2007). The No Asshole Rule: Building a Civilized Workplace and Surviving One That Isn’t. New York: Hachette Book Group. Retrieved from https://www.gsb.stanford.edu/faculty-research/books/no-asshole-rule-building-civilized-workplace-surviving-one-isnt
Syahruddin, H., Hillman, W., Rudi, S., Daswati, D., & Risma, N. (2022). The Effect of Toxic Leadership on Turnover Intention and Counterproductive Work Behavior in Indonesia Public Organizations. International Journal of Public Sector Management, 35(3), 317–333. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPSM-06-2021-0142
Tavanti, M. (2011). Managing Toxic Leaders: Dysfunctional Patterns in Organizational Leadership and How to Deal with Them. Human Resource Management, pp. 127–136.
Tavanti, M., & Tait, A. (2021). The Dark Side of Nonprofit Leadership: Cases, Causes, and Consequences. Destructive Leadership and Management Hypocrisy.
Tepper, B.J. (2007). Abusive Supervision in Work Organizations: Review, Synthesis, and Research Agenda. Journal of Management, 33(3), 261–289. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206307300812
Tight, M. (2017). Understanding Case Study Research. SAGE Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473920118
Uysal, H.T. (2019). The Mediation Role of Toxic Leadership in the Effect of Job Stress on Job Satisfaction. International Journal of Business, 24(1), 55–73. Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/mediation-role-toxic-leadership-effect-job-stress/docview/2234960232/se-2
Verburg, R.M., Nienaber, A.-M., Searle, R.H., Weibel, A., Den Hartog, D.N., & Rupp, D.E. (2018). The Role of Organizational Control Systems in Employees’ Organizational Trust and Performance Outcomes. Group & Organization Management, 43(2), 179–206. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601117725191
Walia, K., & Bajaj, A. (2012). Impact of Human Resources Management Practices on Employee Retention. International Journal of Research in IT and Management, 2(2), 836–850.
Walker, S., & Watkins, D. (2020). Shadows of Leadership: The Lived Experiences of Oppressed Followers of Toxic Leaders. Journal of Leadership, Accountability and Ethics, 17(2). https://doi.org/10.33423/jlae.v17i2.2872
Webster, J.R., Beehr, T.A., & Love, K. (2011). Extending the Challenge-Hindrance Model of Occupational Stress: The Role of Appraisal. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 79(2), 505–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2011.02.001
Weibel, A., Den Hartog, D.N., Gillespie, N., Searle, R., Six, F., & Skinner, D. (2016). How Do Controls Impact Employee Trust in The Employer? Human Resource Management, 55(3), 437–462. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.21733
Whicker, M.L. (1996). Toxic Leaders: When Organizations Go Bad. Praeger.
Williams, C.K. (2019). The cost of tolerating toxic behaviors in the department of defense workplace. Military Review, 99, 54.
Williams, D.F. (2005). Toxic Leadership in the U.S. Army. Retrieved from https://nation.time.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/8/2011/09/toxic-paper.pdf
Williams, K.R. (2018). Toxic Leadership in Defense and Federal Workplaces: Sabotaging the Mission and Innovation. International Journal of Public Leadership, 14(3), 179–198. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPL-04-2018-0023
Yin, R.K. (2013). Validity and Generalization in Future Case Study Evaluations. Evaluation, 19, 321–332.
Yin, R.K. (2017). Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods (6th ed.). Sage.
