Journal of Management Policy and Practice
The aim of the Journal of Management Policy and Practice (JMPP) is to publish research that conceptualizes, tests, or extends management theory. It is also the aim of JMPP for all research to have an end benefit to practitioners and policy makers. All empirical methods-including, but not limited to, qualitative, quantitative, field, laboratory, meta-analytic, and combination methods-are welcome. Accepted manuscripts must make strong empirical and/or theoretical contributions and highlight the significance of those contributions to the management field. JMPP is not tied to any particular discipline, level of analysis, or national context. Authors should strive to be bold but theoretically grounded in their research. The target acceptance bounds of JMPP run between 12% and 18%. All articles go through a double blind review process, and acceptance decisions are made within forty-five days of submission. Authors of unaccepted papers are free to submit their papers to another journal.
Management and Business Implications of Project 2025
Throughout the 2024 Presidential campaign, one topic of interest was discussed from time to time which in many ways can have a profound impact on the American political and economic system for the immediate future. Project 2025 is a concerted movement that rapidly evolved into a conservative political strategy to reform, modify, and reinvent the American system. Well over one hundred respected organizations and conservative political strategists have worked to dismantle and eliminate what many have referred to as the Deep State. As a product of the Heritage Foundation, the Mandate for Leadership. So, what exactly is Project 2025, and what could be its impact on the political and economic system of the United States? This is a discussion of this immensely powerful and deep-rooted movement which could create a significant and disruptive paradigm shift for several decades to come.
Copyright (c) 2025 Journal of Management Policy and Practice
The Standardized Amphora: Cornerstone of Logistics Management in the Roman Empire
The role of amphorae in the trade and economic integration of the Roman Empire has been widely studied in economic history. These standardized vessels facilitated the transport of wheat, beer, and olive oil across provinces, supported by an efficient logistical infrastructure of delivery methods and warehouses. Much like the 20th-century shipping container, amphorae simplified handling and reduced costs. By drawing historical parallels, the author highlights how ancient logistical innovations inform contemporary supply chain management, as challenges in tracking, flow optimization, and reliability persist. Exploring historical solutions offers fresh perspectives for strategy research, suggesting that two millennia-old practices can inspire modern decision-making. Ultimately, this article urges researchers and practitioners to view history as a source of insight for addressing today’s supply chain challenges. Examining ancient logistics may reveal sustainable and effective options that foster resilience and adaptability in an ever-changing global market. Understanding past innovations can help develop strategies to mitigate contemporary supply chain disruptions and enhance long-term efficiency.
Fatal Car Crashes and Marijuana Legalization
An increasing number of states are legalizing recreational use of marijuana. There are concerns about its impact on road safety. This empirical study uses the experience from Michigan, California, and Colorado to test whether marijuana legalization has had any significant impact on cannabinoid-related fatal crashes. A Poisson difference-in-difference style estimation is applied in a panel data setting. MI, CA and CO are used as the treatment group, where recreational marijuana has been legalized. The control groups are the states of Ohio, Indiana and Texas, which did not have recreational marijuana legalized at the time. The treatment effect is found to be significant, thus legalization and retailing of marijuana have statistically significantly increased the number of cannabinoid-related and overall fatal crashes in the states that have legalized it in the period of study.
A Critical Analysis of Urban Leadership and Management in Complex and Challenging Situations: A Review of the Washington D.C. Federal Government’s Practices During the COVID-19 Pandemic
This paper aims to provide a comprehensive review of the practices adopted by the federal government in Washington, D.C., during the COVID-19 pandemic. It explores the challenges and opportunities encountered by urban leaders as they navigate complex and demanding circumstances. The analysis encompasses an examination of the strategies employed, the effectiveness of response measures, and the lessons learned from this unprecedented crisis. By exploring the experiences of the Washington D.C. government, this paper seeks to contribute to a broader understanding of effective governance in times of crisis and inform decision-making processes for future challenges.
Developing Leaders: Just Don’t Forget About the Followers!
Prior research has presented the positive effects of leadership training programs, but the knowledge of how these types of programs affect organizational followers is limited. Here, we expand on conclusions from a study that explored how organizational followers perceive leadership change and present a practical guide for organizations that use leader rotations as a leadership development strategy. This practical guide is built on four distinct themes offered by the organizational follower: leader expectations and engagement, organizational culture, communication, and consistency. Our findings reveal how the organizational follower perceives leadership change while offering insight into how to combat this practice's perceived negative influence on the followers within an organization. By acknowledging the advice given here, the global organization may reduce the adverse effects the organizational followers feel when subjected to frequent leader changes while still developing their future leaders' skills.
A Quantitative Study Examining the Relationship Between Gender and Career Advancement in Product Management
Gender-based career advancement disparities are prevalent across various fields, yet their impact on product management remains understudied. This quantitative correlational study investigated career advancement barriers faced by 173 full-time, salaried U.S.-based product managers and senior product managers, focusing on gender differences. Survey data explored the relationship between gender and perceived barriers, including lack of culture fit, exclusion from informal networks, mentoring deficiencies, poor organizational career management, limited developmental assignments, and geographic mobility constraints. Organizational justice theory and the glass ceiling metaphor framed this research, utilizing a Mann-Whitney U test for analysis. Results revealed a statistically significant relationship between gender and the perception of 'lack of culture fit' as a career advancement barrier. This study contributes to existing gender-based career advancement disparity research, highlighting the intersection of gender, career progression, and the product management field. The findings offer valuable insights for product management professionals and organizational leaders to promote gender equity through informed career development strategies.
China-Laos Economic Integration in the Context of the Belt and Road Initiative: Evidence From Sign Restrictions
This study empirically assesses the degree of business cycles synchronization and economic integration between Laos and China under the influence of the Belt and Road Initiative. We estimate a two-country structural VAR model and apply sign restrictions to identify the structural shocks for 1984-2022. We find that China’s macroeconomic shocks have played a significant role in shaping Laos’ GDP and price level and that China’s influence is increasing over time. Our results suggest that Laos’ business cycles have become more synchronized with China’s under the influence of the BRI, consistent with the overall literature of BRI’s impact on the developing countries.
Employee Perceptions and Federal Agency Performance: Insights From the 2022 Federal Employee Viewpoint Survey (FEVS)
This study examines how federal employees' perceptions of innovation, teamwork, diversity, personal development, and customer orientation influence organizational performance. Analyzing 300 responses from the 2022 Federal Employee Viewpoint Survey (FEVS), the research used descriptive and inferential statistics alongside thematic analysis for a holistic understanding. Key findings reveal that innovation drives personal accomplishment, diversity enhances engagement, and teamwork and customer orientation positively impact workplace dynamics. The study underscores the importance of inclusive practices. It offers actionable recommendations for federal agencies to improve workplace culture and performance. Future research should explore these findings' broader applicability and long-term impacts.
What Are the Best Leadership Styles for Managing Boomers, Generation X, Millennials, and Generation Z Who Work Remotely?
In this study, we answered the following research question: What are the best leadership styles for managing Boomers, Generation X, Millennials, and Generation Z who work remotely? We examined four generations of remote workers: Boomers (1946-1964), Generation X (1965-1980), Millennials (1981-1994), and Generation Z (1995-2010); therefore, each generation will prioritize different aspects of their work-life-balance, which could be pivotal in the style of leadership controlling their level of productivity. We use an integrative literature review to analyze findings from prior research to gain a comprehensive perspective on remote work management. Transformational and situational leadership appear to be the most productive for remote work due to flexibility, engagement, and adaptability to varying needs. We conclude that leaders engage in practices that create a productive, inclusive, and adaptable remote work culture. We offer two recommendations.
Entrepreneurial Motives, Success Factors and Barriers Among SMEs in Mexico
SMEs are an important part of Mexico’s economy in terms of job creation and GDP. It is therefore essential to better understand how SMEs are created and developed in order to build a stronger economy. This study aimed to determine the motivations of Mexican entrepreneurs, the success factors they value and the obstacles they face. To achieve this, this research identified and analyzed the entrepreneurial motives, success factors and obstacles experienced by a sample of 278 entrepreneurs in urban Mexico. The results show that entrepreneurs in Mexico are mainly motivated by economic goals, as four of the top six goals identified by firm owners were extrinsic. In terms of success factors, Mexican entrepreneurs favor those related to personal and product/service characteristics while difficulties related to finding reliable personnel as well as the weaknesses of the Mexican economic environment, were reported are the main obstacles by respondents.
The Motivations and Barriers related to Entrepreneurs in the Farming Sector: The Case of Ontario
Ontario, one of Canada’s largest provinces, is a strong agricultural producer and plays an important role in Ontario's economy regarding job creation and GDP. It is therefore essential to better understand how Ontario’s farmers' businesses are created and developed in order to render the economy more resilient. This research attempted to identify Ontarian farmers' entrepreneurs’ motives for self-employment and which obstacles they identified as major business threats. In that perspective, a questionnaire derived from the literature was administered to a sample of 60 Ontarian farmer-entrepreneurs. Results revealed that the farmers entrepreneurs in Ontario were primarily motivated by independent goals, by opposition to extrinsic goals such as a desire to increase sales and profits. At the same time, the lack of reliable personnel and government bureaucracy were perceived as major barriers to entrepreneurial success.
Addressing Remote Work Burnout: Mindfulness and Strategic Subtraction Techniques for Effective Leadership
This study examines burnout reduction interventions for remote leaders, particularly in the context of COVID-19’s impact on work-life boundaries. Using a quasi-experimental design, online survey findings from remote employees were analyzed through the lens of Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) and Job Demands-Resource Theory (JD-R). Results indicate that Mindfulness Meditation and Strategic Subtraction are effective in reducing burnout. These findings offer practical insights for organizations seeking to improve employee well-being and mitigate turnover risks in remote work settings. Implications for leadership strategies and workplace policies are discussed to support sustainable remote work environments through practical interventions.
The Intersectional Impact: How Race Shapes Gender Differences in Job Satisfaction
This study builds on prior research examining gender and job satisfaction by exploring how race—White or non-White—affects gender differences in satisfaction. Using survey data from 566 U.S. workers, the findings reveal that the gender gap in job satisfaction varies notably by racial background. While earlier studies have been inconclusive about whether a gender-based advantage exists in perceived workplace satisfaction, this study identifies a significant gender gap, particularly pronounced among White workers. In contrast, the gap is smaller and less consistent among non-White workers. By integrating the intersection of gender and race, the research offers a more nuanced view of satisfaction disparities and highlights the limitations of analyzing these factors in isolation. The results suggest that overlooking intersectionality may obscure key diversity dynamics. Ultimately, the study emphasizes the importance for organizations to acknowledge and address the complex identities of employees when seeking to improve workplace well-being and overall performance.
Sculpting Skies: The Ever-Shifting Dreamscape of Turkish Air Travel
The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly altered global air travel, reshaping passenger expectations and perceptions of service quality. This study examines changes in tourists’ evaluations of Turkish-registered airlines based on 4,652 online reviews from five major carriers. Using Leximancer for semantic content analysis, the study identifies key thematic shifts before and after the pandemic. Results show a move from traditional service elements—like punctuality, catering, and staff behavior—to pandemic-related concerns such as hygiene, testing, and refund policies. The study also explores shifts in value-for-money perceptions, offering data-driven insights for airline managers in the post-pandemic travel environment.
Peacekeeping? An Analysis of the Public Choice Issues in ONUCA and MINUSTAH Reforms
This paper examines the key differences between the United Nations’ peacekeeping missions in Central America (ONUCA) and Haiti (MINUSTAH) to assess the impact of these foreign interventions on the national institutions of the affected countries within the context of peacebuilding policy. I contend that if the UN leads peacebuilding reforms at a constitutional or equivalent level, then the intervened polity should develop liberal democracy, free markets and/or stable peace. For this comparison, I employ a most similar systems design, which uses UN-promoted reforms as an independent variable and the aforementioned outcomes as dependent variables, encompassing all observable elements of peacebuilding. I found that UN-led reforms did not lead to the desired results of peacebuilding. Rather, polities only democratized, liberalized and pacified when the mission supported an agreement that came from within. The continuation of war and the lack of internal national consensus hindered democratization, liberalization and pacification in Haiti, while peace and internal consensus allowed peacebuilding to succeed in Central America. Third party intervention, particularly from the West, promoted violence and peace, respectively.
Drawdown Risk and the 2024 Presidential Election
Drawdown risk measures show how the value of an investment changes from a peak to a trough and are widely used by practitioners1 . This paper provides instructions for analyzing drawdown risk around Presidential elections, with methods extendable to other events and horizons. The approach can be applied by analysts at financial planning firms or students in finance, investment, or business analytics courses. Exercises can be performed using SAS, VBA, STATA, R, or Python. In a classroom setting, students analyze risk in preparation for a hypothetical financial planning meeting with clients concerned about the 2024 Presidential Election. Check numbers are provided for the 2020 U.S. Presidential Election, showing that investors who bought the S&P 500 index one- , three-, or six-months prior experienced maximum drawdown risk of 7.5%, 9.6%, or 9.6%, with recovery periods of 7, 50, or 50 days. Instructions allow analysis for the most recent seven elections, supporting both applied teaching and practitioner-oriented risk evaluation.
Balancing Data Transparency and Privacy Protection in Epidemiological Visualizations: A Targeted Narrative Review of Privacy-Preserving Data Visualizations
Epidemiology relies on data visualization to identify disease patterns, causes, and effects. These visualizations often contain sensitive information that risks re-identification if not properly anonymized, while excessive anonymization may lead to information loss, distort findings, and reduce usability. This review summarizes strategies for balancing transparency with privacy preservation in epidemiological visualizations. Through targeted database searches, we identified common anonymization strategies, adaptable for various visualizations. Each visualization type requires a different approach, and often a combination of methods to yield the strongest privacy protection. Privacy-preserving visualization remains underdeveloped, and further empirical validation and user studies are needed.
Cannabis Licensing and Municipal Revenues
Municipal license policy has shaped the early roll-out and business outcomes of Proposition 64. Several stakeholders identify license availability as a key constraint to future cannabis market growth in California. Recent studies explore local cannabis licensing policy; however, key questions remain around municipal revenues, business location, and the role of supporting cannabis business ownership. Our paper explores the impacts of cannabis licensing on business locations and municipal taxable revenues. We use publicly-available Department of Cannabis Control licensing data to examine business locations using GIS analysis, conduct a regression analysis of city-level licenses and Department of Tax and Fee Administration revenues across California, and forecast potential municipal taxable revenues in South Bay Los Angeles. We find that licensed cannabis businesses appear to develop in Los Angeles County and are located close to borders of cities not issuing licenses, in areas of favorable zoning, in densely populated locations, and areas with higher poverty and minority populations. Our regression analysis suggests that city population drives municipal taxable revenue, indicating that business follows demand.
The Relationship Between Performance Appraisal System and Employee Job Satisfaction in Higher Education Institutions in Palestine
The Performance Appraisal System (PAS) plays a key role in the overall success of an organization. An appropriate PAS can potentially increase employee Job Satisfaction (JS). This article aims to demonstrate the level of practices and characteristics of the PAS, characterize JS levels in the workplace, and understand the relationship between the PAS and JS in Palestine’s Higher Education Institutions (HEI). This article advocates to the Ministry of Higher Education to establish a Performance Appraisal (PA) model in all HEI that would meet their specific needs. It will also contribute to the development of HEI through facilitating improved services to students and society overall. Furthermore, the article identifies key factors contributing to the success of PAS in Palestine. Convenience sampling was utilized to study 370 HEI employees. A quantitative analysis was employed through SPSS that found a statistically significant relationship between PAS traits and employee JS. Clarity, trust, and fairness positively correlated with JS, whereas two-way communication correlated negatively. Substantial gender-based disparities in JS among the participants were also identified.
Copyright (c) 2024 Journal of Management Policy and Practice
The Broken Promises of Neoliberal Soccer: Illusion and Disillusion of the 2022 FIFA World Cup
The 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar attracted over 3.4 million spectators and more than a million international visitors. However, the tournament required a colossal investment of 220 billion US dollars for facilities whose future use remains uncertain. It also highlighted the excesses of neoliberal soccer, dominated by financial interests. Since the World Cup was awarded in December 2010, controversies have emerged, particularly regarding the working conditions of migrant workers, which have led to several thousand deaths. There have been widespread denunciations of labor and civil rights violations, and the banning of the “One Love” armband has illustrated FIFA’s censorship. Environmental criticisms were also significant, questioning the event’s claimed carbon neutrality. Extravagant spending on stadium construction and hotel infrastructures, often seen as unnecessary luxury after the tournament, has been highlighted. Qatar has not fulfilled its promises to dismantle and repurpose the stadiums, which remain underused. The 2022 FIFA World Cup exposed the tensions between sporting values and economic realities and underscored the need for a thorough analysis of the long-term impact of mega-sporting events.
Reflections on Creative Recruiting Solutions to the Nationwide Nursing Shortage
There is possibly no nobler profession than the field of nursing. An individual selflessly cares for another human being, working long hours for little pay. With the aging population in the United States, there has been a shortage of nurses that can effectively meet the needs of patients. Hospitals are developing new incentives to attract and retain top talent. This paper will review relevant literature on the nationwide nursing shortage. It will show that this is not a new phenomenon, unique only to the United States. We will compare recruiting strategies from the past and develop best practices for recruiting and retention in today’s competitive market. An applicable hiring model will be presented.
Exploring Geographic Influences on the Engagement Divide Between Male and Female Employees
This study analyzes survey data from over 500 U.S. employees to investigate how key workplace determinants uniquely relate to engagement for men and women within and outside of Utah. The aim is to address gaps in research examining potential gender variations and geographic influences on the drivers of discretionary effort at work. Traditional predictors like fulfillment of basic needs, individual contributions, teamwork, and growth were examined alongside the emerging construct of “worker activation,” reflecting empowering organizational cultures that motivate extra effort. Analyses included descriptive tests, gender-specific regression models, and assessments of activation variable impacts between genders, with findings revealing modest yet significant male-female disparities in average engagement levels. The multi-dimensional nature of engagement determinants also varied across genders and geographies. Activation was also found to significantly predict engagement across genders, validating its cross-cutting importance in conceptualization and offering implications for optimally designing inclusive strategies to inspire discretionary commitment and employee engagement both within and outside of Utah.
Impact of the Inflation Reduction Act on Patient Access and Out-of-Pocket Costs
The Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) represents a recent policy enactment that will influence prescription drug pricing. This paper examines the IRA's elements and their impact on patients' access to medications, specifically around programs funded by the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid. This review analyzed grey literature on patient medication access concerning the IRA, along with the legislation itself. It finds that the IRA contains six key provisions with the potential to impact patients' access to medications and stakeholder business practices: insulin and vaccine cost share, OOP cost limits, premium stabilizations, drug negotiations, and low-income subsidy programs. Although the IRA presents cost-saving provisions, it may exert downstream effects on new drug innovation, increased medication utilization management by payers and pharmacy benefit managers (PBMs), and how healthcare providers, manufacturers, and payers/(PBMs) work together to balance patient well being with fair economic returns for all stakeholders.
This article analyzes the motivations and implications of the European Union’s (EU) Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with New Zealand, signed in 2022. While the economic benefits appear modest due to New Zealand’s small market size, the EU’s strategic goals in the Indo-Pacific and commitment to a rules-based international order are emphasized. The agreement also highlights the EU’s efforts to promote sustainable trade practices and expand geopolitical influence. Additionally, it signifies the EU’s intention to diversify its partnerships and reaffirm its global presence. The article discusses these dimensions to provide a comprehensive understanding of the EU’s motivations and the potential impact of the FTA.
Assessing Resources Devoted to Electronic Reporting and Automation Among Central Cancer Registries Meeting National Program of Cancer Registries (NPCR) Quality Standards
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has emphasized a need for data modernization initiatives (DMIs) to improve the quality and timeliness of cancer surveillance data. To guide such DMI efforts, we need data on the resources required to generate high-quality data. Twenty-one central cancer registries (CCRs) collected data from July 2020 to June 2021. We explored the potential relationship between resources for (1) electronic reporting and automation and (2) the quality of CCR data. We then compared activity-based costs of registries that always (n = 8), sometimes (n = 6), or seldom/never (n = 7) met data quality standards for completeness, timeliness, duplicate rate, and missing values. We found the registries that consistently met data quality standards used more resources on setting up processes to acquire data, training staff, and processing data. Compared to high-quality registries, registries that seldom/never met quality standards spent the most on case finding/data abstraction of non-hospital records. This study provides key findings for resource use, which can guide advancements when implementing electronic reporting and automation to improve CCR operations.
How Government Organizations Can Sustain Remote Work Post COVID-19
Government organizations are unprepared to sustain remote work post-COVID-19. Even though COVID-19 seems to be under control, organizations are still struggling with the aftermath of the pandemic and the need to sustain remote work. Challenges include lack of necessary information technology tools, software, technological skills, strategies for remote work, leadership skills, real-time communication, activity planning and program implementation, scheduling meetings, organizing childcare, managing caseloads, fostering team work, and effective supervision. A conceptual framework based on organizational adaptation theory guided this qualitative case study. Since the study was to ascertain how government organizations can sustain remote work post-COVID-19, semi-structured interviews were used to collect data from 12 government employees in Dallas Texas who worked remotely during COVID-19. Thematic analysis was conducted and. nine themes morphed from the study. The results highlighted the need for employee training and continuous organizational adaptation to the changing business environment.
Reconfiguring the Kazakhstan Pension System: How Can Canadian and OECD Experience Be Helpful?
This study examines the current state of Kazakhstan’s public pension system, comparing its performance and asset structure to OECD countries. It highlights structural and regulatory issues within the national pension market that hinder adequate retirement savings for the population. A key concern is the low real rate of return by the national pension fund, potentially jeopardizing its ability to meet future retirement needs amidst rising inflation. The study analyzes the Canadian pension system as a model, showcasing a three-layer structure that fosters diverse sources of pension benefits, ensuring sustainable income for retirees. It recommends considering group (employer-based) and private (individual) registered pension programs, common in developed countries, to generate additional pension income. Supportive legal and tax frameworks are crucial to encourage participation in these programs. Drawing on Canadian and OECD experiences, the study offers suggestions for reconfiguring Kazakhstan’s pension system to enhance its performance and sustainability, ultimately leading to higher pension payouts for future retirees.
Significant fluctuations in crude oil prices draw attention from policymakers, academics, and practitioners. These fluctuations often arise from global demand changes, supply disruptions, or precautionary motives, prompting critical questions about monetary policy responses. Understanding the interplay between oil shocks and monetary policy requires examining central bank actions and their economic impacts. This study investigates monetary policy responses to oil shocks since the 1990s using Structural Vector Autoregression, Impulse Response Functions, and Variance Decomposition. These methods reveal dynamic relationships between crude oil prices, inflation rates, and monetary policy rates. The findings highlight distinct responses among countries. Major oil importers like the U.S. and China significantly raise policy rates in response to oil shocks, while Japan shows a more modest reaction. Among oil-exporting nations, Saudi Arabia and Canada respond swiftly and substantially, whereas Nigeria adopts an unconventional approach, loosening monetary policy after an oil shock. These variations underscore the complex interactions between oil prices and monetary policy globally.
Destigmatizing Cannabis: A Theoretical Exploration of Shifting Consumption Norms in the U.S. Legal Market
This study explores the destigmatization of stigmatized consumption, focusing on the evolving landscape of legal cannabis in the United States. With global adult-use cannabis sales projected to surpass 33 billion U.S. dollars by 2025, the market's growth is undeniable. Despite its expansion, the legal cannabis market remains intricate and controversial. There has been a steep increase in support for cannabis legalization over the last two decades in the U.S. and around the world. This study combines the “stigma turbine” theoretical framework with normative social behavior and market co-optation theories, proposing a categorization of consumption practices from stigmatized to destigmatized to normalized to normatized. By examining the destigmatization process, this framework offers insights applicable beyond cannabis, aiding scholars in understanding the dynamics of stigmatized behaviors and guiding policymakers and brand managers in navigating evolving perceptions and responses. We offer a few public policy implications that advocate for more research in the cannabis field that would educate consumers and increase awareness.
The Road to Hell Is Paved With Good Intentions: Why Regulatory Breaches Take Place
This study investigates the several factors which can drive professionals into non-compliance. The author has looked at these factors from an economic, game theoretic, decision-theoretic, psychological and conflict management theory point of view. The research reveals that culture, not merely in the sense of compliance culture but also in the sense of company culture, plays a pivotal role. Based on company and compliance culture, governance and the various identified factors inciting compliance or non-compliance, the author distinguishes inclusive and extractive company cultures. In inclusive company cultures, factors encouraging compliance dominate, while in extractive company cultures, this is the case for factors discouraging compliance.